Herbert Spencer, On Social Evolution

Chapter 11:

This chapter is named "Methodological Individualism" because Spencer is

putting forth this idea. The characteristics of the aggregate cannot go

beyond the characteristics of the individuals that are the units of the

aggregate. The nature of the aggregate cannot be different than the units.

There is a direct link between the characteristics of the aggregate and

the characteristics of the units that compose it. The properties of the

units determine the properties of the whole.

If two groups are composed of different sorts of individuals, then the

groups will differ to the extent that the individuals in the groups differ.

What is important are the essential characteristics, the cardinal traits

and not the incidental traits.

The role of Sociology is to express the relation between the proprieties of

the whole and the properties of the units that make up the whole. It

should look at what qualities of individuals promote aggregation, as well

as those that negate it. The subject matter of sociology is the growth,

development, structure and functions of the social aggregate, "as brought

about by the mutual actions of individuals whose natures are partly like

those of all men, partly like those of kindred races, partly distinctive."

(pp. 100)

Social evolution needs to be examined in relation to the distinct

environments of each society. It is the structures of society and their

functions, in their origin, development and decline that sociology is

concerned with. Societies can also be arranged into classes and

subclasses. Society's universal, general and specific structures an

functions need to be considered. Overall, Spencer seems to see many useful

parallel's between the natural sciences and the science of society.

Chapter 14:

Society is a collection of individuals. But in order for the collection of

individuals to be a society, the arrangement of them must not be temporary.

The permanence among the component parts is what is important. Society is

made up of discrete units, but the seeming concreteness of the aggregate is

implied because of the maintenance of a similar structure from generation

to generation. The maintenance of a similar structure is what yields the

idea of society. What interests Spencer is the constancy of the

distribution of parts that are the result of settled life. What makes a

society a society is the parallelism of the principle in the arrangement of

the components.

Spencer looks at the likenesses between the organic world and society.

Spencer concludes that organic bodies are more comparable to society than

inorganic bodies. There are several similarities that Spencer finds. Both

organic bodies and societies grow. Furthermore when both increase in size

they also increase in structure. As these two forms grow they

differentiate and have more divisions and sub-divisions. The social

organism and individual organism grow until maturity and then are marked by

decay. This differentiation in the structure of these forms is accompanied

by diversities in the actions that the different parts perform. Each

different 'organ' has a different function in the social or organic body.

The differences are not just diverse, but they are definitely connected.

As a organism, social or organic, develops so do the connections and

interrelations between the different parts. If one part of the organism is

changed then it will affect the other parts.

These are the similarities between an organic organism and a social

organism, however these are not the same and the organic body should only

be used as a purpose of illustration. The comparison with an organic being

only highlights the co-operation among the component parts for the benefit

of the whole. The general ideas that Spencer then leaves is:

1) Societies are aggregates that grow

2) There are great varieties in the degrees of growth. Those that are the

most complex are at a higher stage of evolution.

3) Larger societies result from the aggregation and re-aggregation of

smaller societies.

4) This process above is what has formed the modern nations.

5) The increase in size also leads to an increase in the structure. As

societies grow they become more complex. The more complex they are the

more the parts are mutually dependent.

Society begins with two divisions in its organization. That between the

division that carries on relations with other societies and the division

that is devoted to supporting society itself. As society develops an

intermediate section develops- this is for the transfer of products and

influences from part to part. This intermediate division as it develops

makes the transfer more efficient and able to fulfill their function

better, but at the same time makes the parts more dependent. A regulating

system also develops in society. This seems to be essential to society.

Those societies that don't have subordination to this system disappear. In

industrial society there is an added decentralized regulation from

industrialization.

Chapter 19:

Cooperation is an essential part of society. Society cannot exists without

cooperation and cooperation with our society. People come together and

cooperate together in order to reach common goals and ends. Cooperation

implies social organization, and there are two types of social organization

in this area. Spontaneous cooperation, which is the consequence of people

pursuing their private ends. Market transactions seem to be what Spencer

is talking about. The second is cooperation that is consciously devised.

This implies a distinct recognition of public ends. This cooperation

however is not always in line with the wishes of the individual. The

individual's desires are constrained first by the will of the entire group

and then later by a regulating agency. The first form of cooperation is

designed for the preservation of the individual, the second is designed for

the preservation of the aggregate. The first is without coercive power and

the second uses coercive power (military and government). A political

organization is an example of the second type because it, "carries on

directive and restraining functions for public ends." (pp. 188)

Spencer talks about what is necessary for a Militant Society to survive.

The society must engage in corporate action. The more complete the

corporate action, the better chance of survival for the society. This

corporate action needs to be both direct support, as in soldiers, and

indirect support from the other members of the society. It is also

important for the society to survive that the efforts towards preservation

are combined in the most effective manner. This means that societies with

close ties will be better able to survive. Within this militant type of

society, preservation of the society is primary and preservation of the

individual is secondary. A militant society also involves a system of

centralization. It can also evolve into despotism. Furthermore, it is

characterized by a system of status; the members of the society are in

successive grades of subordination.

This type of society is so because it has a few a priori characteristics.

· The State owning the individual in terms of life, liberty, and goods.

· There arises a central body- officialdoms, a dictation and a

superintendence.

· The individuals value bravery, strength, revenge, willing to sacrifice

others, patriots, obedience to authority, and inability to function without

regulation. These traits are found in members of militant societies. The

members characteristics of the militant society are those of the militant

type of society (methodological individualism).

Spencer sees class relations are a fixture of social life. These arise

wherever there is some coherence and permanence among the parts. When this

happens, political divisions begin to arise. These divisions arise due to

differentials in superiority of power. These divisions can be between the

sexes, different countries, among men (slaves) etc. The militant class

that dominates the militant society, comes to power because they have

superiority in the force of arms. They then are able to control the land.

The power of the militant class is dependent on the strength of arms and

the land. For Spencer it seems that inequalities are based on social

position. It is the person's social position that influences access the

necessities and other aspects of life. These class divisions have a fluid

nature to them because when one society is conquered by another it develops

another set of class divisions.

Spencer also discusses industrial society. Industrialism weakens the

militant type of society. This occurs through the creation of a class

having power derived from something else besides territorial possessions or

official positions. This weakening also occurs by industrialism generating

ideas and sentiments at variance with ancient assumptions of class

superiority. Overall, "growing industrialism diminishes the rigor of

ceremonial rule, so here we see that it tends to destroy those

class-divisions which militancy originates, and to establish quite alien

ones which indicate differences of position consequent on differences of

aptitude for the various functions which an industrial society needs."

(pp. 196)

The qualities of an industrial society are:

· The role of corporate action is to protect the individual from all

interference. The society will be one of negative regulation.

· Instead of a central, controlling agency, an agency formed of

representatives who serve to express the needs and wills of the units will

take place.

· Instead of militancy ruling society, the contract will take its place

and will have to be enforced.

· Corporate action comes to be increasingly used by the individual and

there is an increase and diversification of voluntary organizations.

· It is more plastic than a militant society and doesn't have as much

economic autonomy from other societies.

· The more industrialized a society, the more that these traits will appear.

Spencer also discusses social change. For him any social arrangement

stands in the way of social change. There are certain factors that effect

the pace of change. If a society is broken down into specialized parts,

then it will be harder for it to change. Each part of society is designed

to maintain itself and will resist change that makes it obsolete.

Furthermore, people will be accustomed to ways of doing things and will not

want to change. Political organizations also resist change. They do this

by increasing in their size, and thus increasing the people who regulate as

opposed to those who are regulated. They also socialize people to the form

of political organization so that people will not want to see change. The

society will no longer be adaptable. (note: it seems to be a thread in

Spencer that there is a certain amount of everything in the social system,

so that one action decreases the likelihood of another)

The stability in society and a particular structure is favored by the

transmission of positions and functions through successive generations.

This is the principle of fixity in social organization. Another aspect of

this principle is the elders in society tend to maintain the established

social order. The older members of a society in general have more habit

and more aversion to change.

Social change is more likely when a person's place and function is

determined by the personal qualities. Where ability or fitness for the

function rules, this is called the principle of change in social

organization. Unlike the description above, here the youth have more power

and therefore society is more plastic. (good quote pp. 202- second to last

paragraph)