Leon Mayhew - "Ascription in Modern Societies"

This article is noting that modernization involves the breakdown of ascription, however it also involves mechanisms, which use and incorporate traditional ascriptive elements and solidarities. Tradition and modernity are not necessarily mutually exclusive conceptual opposites. Mayhew draws heavily upon the work of Parson's as a base.

For Parsons, ascription is the fusion of intrinsically separate functions in the same structural unit. Intrinsically separate functions are those that can only achieve high levels of performance in different and somewhat incompatible structural settings. Ascriptive structures are basic reference points from which differentiation in society takes place.

In Parson's later work ascription has become the base state from which evolution occurs in the form of continuing differentiation and re-integration. There are basic categories from which this occurs. These are kinship, ethnic solidarity, primary group, and territorial grouping. These ascriptive

features my become lessened by differentiation and technological advance, but they are not eliminated from the structure of society. Parson's recognizes that ascription will be a part of the structure of even the most modern and highly differentiated society. However the functions of ascription will be

limited to a circumscribed sector of social life. They will only exists where they contribute to the solution of problems of integration, socialization, and tension management.

Mayhew criticizes Parson for tying these surviving forms of survival to a particular function. Rather he notes that the various forms of ascription contribute to the solutions of all of the functional problems faced by social systems. Parson's look at ascription is broadly evolutionary and broadly

comparative. However this is not the point of view that Mayhew is coming from. Instead he does not see traditional and contemporary society as being opposites of a spectrum. The course of evolution neither eliminates nor isolates ascriptive elements of social structure. Their meaning may change and their mode of integration with the larger society may become altered, but their real impact is not eliminated.

The reason why ascription has stayed around is that it is cheap. This is because ascription involves using a preestablished structure as a resource rather than creating a new specialized structure for the same purpose. Developing new structures is costly and will only be done if it is sufficiently productive to justify the costs involved in creating and maintaining it. It can be rational to use ascriptive characteristics in order to save time, money and effort.

Mayhew looks at the functions of ascription in Parson's four functional prerequisites of a society- adaptation, goal attainment, integration and pattern maintenance (AGIL). Problems to the system can be either internal or external. Problems concerning the development of resources are instrumental. Problems that involve the expenditure or application of resources are consummatory.

Adaptation- External and Instrumental

? Adaptation is external since it involves relating the system to the environment and it is instrumental since it involves the development of generalized means for pursuing a variety of goals. Ascription can be adaptive. It functions as a generalized resource for a unit in a social system when access to a given resource provides the unit with access to an extensive pool of resources by virtue of ascriptive links between resources.

? The adaptive potential of ascription rests upon the existence in ascriptively defined groups of a range of usable talents and capacities. The capacities of members of these groups are crucial in direct proportion to the levels of skills required in performing societal roles. The group needs to be connected to the large society.

Goal Attainment- External and Consummatory

? Goal Attainment is external in that it refers to relating the system to the environment and consummatory because it involves the organization for the effective pursuit of particular system goals. The capacity for goal attainment to organize the effective expenditure of energy. IN particular contexts ascription can have goal attainment functions. To achieve goals people will not always use rational organization, but will rather rely on old ties and familiar structures.

? The role of ascriptive groups in goal attainment depends on the existence of an effective leadership structure within ascriptively defined groups and an articulation of that leadership structure with the political organization of the larger society. The more central control of a political system, the less

these groups matter because of direct access. However in a more loosely controlled system the mobilizing of these groups will depend upon this effective leadership.

Integration- Internal and Consummatory

? Integration involves relating the constituent units of a system to each other, in this way it is internal. It is consummatory because it involves the confrontation and solution of given coordinate problems. It is the prevention of the mutual interference of the units of a system with each other. The extent to which ascription can be functional in this area depends upon the extent to which ascriptive ties extend across other types of structural divisions of society. When group membership cross cuts units of potential conflict some persons must necessarily experience role conflict and will be constrained to seek workable solutions. It also encourages direct confrontation of problems at grass roots levels by person with detailed knowledge of the ramifications of the difficulties.

? The integrative potential of ascription depends on the existence of cross-cutting ties of solidarity. The more a group is socially isolated from participation in the larger society the less the likelihood that cross-cutting ties of an integrative nature will develop.

Pattern-maintenance- Internal and Instrumental

? This refers to the problem of developing generalized resources for dealing with internal disturbances of all kinds. This is done by the development of mechanisms to insure the maintenance of commitment to general patterns of normative order. Ascription can help by integrating people in a stronger way to society through kin, ethnic and other units for ascription. Insofar as commitments to a large societal community can be attached to the values and commitments inculcated in primary groups the individual's attachment will be greater. If disloyalty to society is disloyalty to the kin, ethnic, etc. group, then the structure of solidarity will be more firmly grounded.

? The role of ascription rests upon whether persons in ascriptively defined locations are not so isolated that their socialization fails to extend the horizons of their social consciousness to the larger society.

The extensive participation of ascriptively defined groups in differentiated roles and institutions does not simply break down ascription, it insinuates ascriptive elements into the institutional structure of modern society in complex and variegated ways.